Guidelines for Writing the Three Major Parts of the Literature Review Essay

The introductory section should describe the topic (problem area, guiding concept, theme or research question or problem) that is being reviewed. Aim for an â€Å"eye catching opening sentence†. Sometimes this is a dramatic expression of a number to catch the reader’s attention such as the prevalence of a disease, crime rate, school drop out rate, or sales volume. Be sure the topic is focused on the literature that will be reported. Briefly define the key concepts. Introduce these immediately. The topic should be sufficiently focused to permit an in-depth, substantial investigation, relevant to an area of advanced study/global leadership that guides a range of inquiry, results in an extensive search of scholarly literature, and generation of questions for further inquiry. The purpose of a literature review is presented in the introduction. Bourner (1996) reports the following Purposes – of a literature review – (reasons for a review of the literature) before embarking on a research project. These reasons include: †¢ to identify gaps in the literature  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ to avoid reinventing the wheel (at the very least this will save time and it can stop you from making the same mistakes as others) †¢ to carry on from where others have already reached (reviewing the field allows you to build on the platform of existing knowledge and ideas) †¢ to identify other people working in the same fields (a researcher network is a valuable resource) †¢ to increase your breadth of knowledge of your subject area †¢ to identify seminal works in your area †¢ to provide the intellectual context for your own work, enabling you to position your project relative to other work †¢ to identify opposing views †¢ to put your work into perspective †¢ to demonstrate that you can access previous work in an area †¢ to identify information and ideas that may be relevant to your project †¢ to identify methods that could be relevant to your project Bourner, T. (1996). The research process: Four steps to success in T. Greenfield (Ed. ), Research methods: Guidance for postgraduates (pp. 7-11). London: Arnold. Retrieved 8-13-02 from Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology RMIT University http://www. lib. rmit. edu. au/tutorials/literature/litrev. html As you attempt to define concepts (variables) and their relationships to other variables, if applicable, identify causal (independent) variables and effects (dependent variables). You may also identify other variables that can be contextual, intervening, or mediating (see Creswell, pp. 94-95 or other texts). After you introduce the topic area properly (instructions follow), you will develop a succinct one-sentence purpose of the review. Three examples of a concluding purpose statement in the overview are: Example 1: The purpose of this review is to critically analyze the theoretical and empirical literature on web-based instruction as an instructional method in distance education, with an emphasis on effectiveness studies that focus on instructional effectiveness, student learning outcomes, retention, student perceptions of this method of course delivery, and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variable (independent) is â€Å"instructional method of web-based instruction† and the effects (dependent variable) are instructional effectiveness, student learning outcomes, retention, and student perceptions. Example 2: The purpose of this critical analysis of theoretical and empirical literature is to (a) examine historical and current literature to evaluate whether gender workplace bias exists; (b) explore the impact such a bias would have on women in the workplace, specifically women moving up the corporate ladder; and, (c) identify any theoretical or empirical gaps in the literature for the purpose of suggesting future areas of scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variable (independent) is â€Å"gender bias against women in the workplace† and the effect (dependent variable) is mobility up the corporate ladder. Example 3 (Review carefully): The purpose of this critical analysis of theoretical and empirical literature is explore the influence of organizational leadership and other factors on organizational performance, in for-profit and not-for profit service organizations, and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. In this example, the causal variables (independent) are â€Å"organizational leadership† and â€Å"other factors†, contextual (intervening or mediating) variables are the type of organization (product versus service) and profit/non-profit, and the effect (dependent variable) is organizational performance. Please note in developing your purpose statement, that the purpose statement begins with The purpose of †¦. and concludes with a statement related to identifying future areas of scholarly inquiry. 9 Instructions: Writing An Overview and Purpose (Follow precisely) *Review Blackboard Forum 5. Use your information and faculty comments for strengthening, as a guide to develop your Overview and Purpose (see items #1-9 below). *Draft 1 is due Week 3. Review Forum 6. You will get a great start if you develop this well. 1. Using the template: a. Develop a preliminary title for the Review and include on the title page. The title should include the main concepts and themes (and/or key theories) for this review. Remember this is a critical analysis of the literature NOT a research study!!!! In no area of this paper, should you refer to this Review of Literature as a research study!!!!!! b. For the Introduction to the Literature, insert a brief subtitle preceding the colon for the level heading: ___: Overview and Purpose. 2. Under the Overview and Purpose, introduce the paper with an â€Å"eye catching† opening sentence for the first paragraph. 3. After the â€Å"eye catching† opening sentence, briefly – describe the topic (problem area, guiding concept, theme). Get to the point – don’t let the reader guess what the review is about –a few sentences. 4. Next include brief definitions of each of the major concepts and cite references for these definitions in appropriate APA format. BE BRIEF – this is not the literature but an introduction to it! Anything you present in the introduction is developed in depth in the Review of the Literature. 5. Next, very briefly, attempt to identify how the literature explains these variables and their relationships to other variables. Include as many as possible variables because this will help in constructing a literature map. The map will show relationships between the variables as you describe here. – Begin with the following: The causal variables (independent are) †¦ The effects (dependent/outcome variables are†¦ Contextual (intervening or mediating) variables that further impact the dependent or outcome variables are †¦. 6. Discuss how the topic area was identified and your reasons (point of view) for selecting the topic area to conduct your critical analysis of the literature. Review the Guidelines: How to Start – Select a Topic and Overview and Purpose, including purposes identified by Bourner (1996). Begin with the following: The topic area of ____ was selected because___. 7. Explain what you want to know about the topic. Review Hart, 1999, p. 14 (Questions the Review Can Answer). Begin with the following: Some questions to be answered through this critical analysis of the literature are:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8. Answer the following: Is the topic about the problems in a discipline or field of study, the processes in a discipline or field of study, or the practices in a discipline or field of study? Processes can refer to various epistemologic processes to develop knowledge (also See Hart, 1999, p. 14). Introduce this clearly so the reader knows what you are speaking about. Begin with the following: The problem area of †¦ is about†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9. Conclude the Overview and Purpose with a clearly formulated statement of purpose of the literature review. Use the examples in the guidelines, as a guide to develop this. Make this clear (see examples in the previous lecture note). Begin with the following and include the ending The purpose of this †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.., and to identify areas of future scholarly inquiry. Organization of the Review, Scope, and Library Research Plan Organization of the Review Lecture Collect appropriate articles, read critically, identify concepts, theories, and themes, and think about the best way to present your topic. Write these concepts, theories, and themes down (see your Blackboard forum 5 submission and instructor response. Develop a Literature Map. This is a Content Map (Concept Map or Mind Map): All students will have a literature map that will guide the organization of the review and literature search. Build (draw) a visual picture of the concepts and their relationships, which results in a literature map. These evolve from your topic, key concepts, ideas, theme, and/or purpose. Don’t introduce new information or concepts. It should first be introduced in the overview. The literature map is presented in-depth here. There are many methods to organize the review, which often change as you learn more about the topic. Concept Mapping – Representing information in diagram form where key words are linked by lines. These lines are then labeled to express the relationship between the terms. The resulting ‘map’ shows links between key ideas and can then be read through to clarify relationships between key terms. a. Definition and Purpose of a Literature Map. This map is a visual/graphic representation of concepts, ideas, and themes that serve to guide thinking. In this case, the purpose is to guide the search and organizational presentation of your review. This map serves to: i. Develop ideas for your review ii. Show relationships and interrelationships between the concepts, theories, and themes – and if so, what type of relationships iii. Assist in organizing old knowledge and integrating it with new knowledge iv. Guide your literature search plan/strategy v. Identify subtitles (subheadings) to organize your literature review so that you can communicate your ideas systematically. vi. A literature/content map is a creative, intuitive, and artistic endeavor to see how things fit – to generate alternatives. It is also analytical and critical, based on what you are finding in the literature. REVIEW THESE LINKS A simplified explanation of understanding of a Content map is described in the following URL – web link – http://users.edte. utwente. nl/lanzing/cm_home. htm b. Various types of Graphic or Visual Organizers (review this online. Click each box) (you need to have the syllabus downloaded and Internet connection on) |Chain of Events |Clustering |Compare/Contrast | |Continuum |Cycle |Family Tree | |Fishbone |Interaction Outline |Problem/Solution | |Spider |Storyboard |Venn Diagram | Source: http://www. sdcoe. k12. ca. us/score/actbank/sorganiz. htm Other Web sites: Graphic or Visual Organizers Graphic or Visual Organizers: A good site review this online by clicking link. http://edservices. aea7. k12. ia. us/edtech/classroom/workshops/organizers. html http://www. cast. org/ncac/index. cfm? i=3015 http://www. veale. com. au/phd/files/Lit_Map. pdf Some diagrams of content maps are depicted in the following URL web link http://trochim. human. cornell. edu/research/epp2/epp2. htm#Table1 Free Mind Mapping Software (Smart Draw) http://www. smartdraw. com/specials/mindmapping. asp? id=13054 Readings on Mapping Ideas: See Hart, 1999, pp. 142-162 Blackboard’s Assignments Toolbar: See example of literature maps in Assignments – Weeks 1-8 Literature Review (Critical Analysis) 50%. Within this folder is information on PowerPoint Presentation and Student Examples. Most of the student examples include literature maps for RES 702 (RES600) students. Organizing the review of the literature by themes, theories, or major concepts and related concepts provides a â€Å"frame for the central topic† to organize. In this case, you may proceed inductively or deductively. http://trochim. human. cornell. edu/kb/dedind. htm Exercise in Deductive/Inductive thinking: http://www2. sjsu. edu/depts/itl/graphics/induc/ind-ded. html#3b For example, a deductive approach might start with the broader view or concept(s) then move to the specific topic area. Example FOLLOWS: A literature map (Figure 1) is used to guide the library search for theoretical and empirical literature about distance learning. The map shows a deductive pattern of the major themes, using an â€Å"interaction line style† type of graphic organizer. Beginning with the broadest concept of distance education, web-based instruction interacts with student characteristics, which leads to evaluation of effectiveness of web-based instruction in distance education. . . . Other concepts and their relationships to guide the review are . . †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Other Organizational Methodologies for Reviews: While RES 702 students are asked to develop literature maps that serve to organize the review, with more scholarly experience and depending upon the topic, you could also present the Review using an â€Å"opposing view† or â€Å"methodological approach†. This is not expected now. c. The literature map generates an outline for the Review of the Literature Review â€Å"Why do an Outline, and Basic Outlining skills: http://www. und. edu/instruct/wstevens/PROPOSALCLASS/PATRAS. html http://www. mnstate. edu/wasson/ed603/ed603lesson5. htm An outline provides a blueprint, skeleton, or a roadmap for the final written review. An outline is an organizational process that is a logical description of the important components of the literature review. It provides a visual and conceptual design for writing. 1. Identify the main points in the order they should be presented. 2. Differentiate each main heading into logical subheadings. 3. Use further subdivisions if necessary. IT IS STRONGLY SUGGESTED THAT YOU INCLUDE A SECTION ON MEASUREMENT OF YOUR MAJOR VARIABLES. REPORT SOME OF THE MAJOR METHODS, TOOLS, OR INSTRUMENTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED IN PRIOR STUDIES TO MEASURE THE KEY CONCEPTS IN YOUR OUTLINE. Notice in the outline that follows, a sub-level heading is measurement of leadership and organizational performance. In the Review of the Literature section, you would then describe the tools whether qualitative or quantitative, and reliability, validity (quantitative tools), and trustworthiness of qualitative tools. Run a Proquest or Google search such as: â€Å"measurement leadership†. This saves you time in the QP and literature in the †dissertation† where you need to know how your variables have been studied and measured. It is best to have MORE detail in these themes. You can always change later. Example of an Outline: (Let us say that the following concepts are present in the literature map which could be Chain of Events, Clustering, or Interaction Outline. This is an example of an outline (quite detailed). It includes the major concepts that can be used for the literature search, and the outline is placed in the 2nd part of this Review (Review of the Literature) to organize how to present the literature. Leadership Classical, Progressive, Risk Leadership Theories Traits and Characteristics of Leaders; Leadership, Power and Influence; Gender and Equity Issues in Leadership Practice Cultural Issues and Leadership Developing Teams Leading Organizational Change Organizational Leadership Development; Strategic Leadership Leadership Measurement Organizational Performance Dimensions of Organizational Performance Organizational Climate Individual Performance Team Performance Supplier/Vendor Perspectives Customer Satisfaction Financial Performance Effectiveness Indicators Performance Driven Organizations Competency Modeling Managing Performance 360 Degree Feedback Collaborative Change Organizational Performance Measurement: Output (Activities) and Outcome (Results) Measures Factors Influencing Organizational Performance Leadership and Performance of Organizations Leadership Style and Team Performance Leadership Style and Organizational Outcomes Leadership Style and Vendor/Supplier and Customer Satisfaction Transformational Leadership, Organizational Culture, and Organizational Effectiveness 7 Instructions for Writing the Organization of the Review Do not present literature that you reviewed here. Just respond to questions 1-7. 1. After you design the literature map, begin with the statement: A literature map (Figure 1) is used to guide the library search for theoretical and empirical literature in this review about ___. 1. Next, describe the specific type of organizer that you used to design your map (for example, cluster, chain of events, cycle, etc). To do this, you need to review this syllabus on line, and click the different URL links of examples of visual or graphic organizers (review preceding lecture which provides several types). 2. Identify the specific the concepts, theories, and themes that are in your literature map. 3. Next, briefly, describe the relationships between these concepts, theories and themes (such as what leads to what? Which are the causal, outcome and/or intervening variables? Are the concepts organized inductively or deductively? This all refers to the concepts, theories, and themes in your literature map. 4. Next explain that in addition to guiding the literature search, the literature map serves to identify themes, theories, and concepts that will organize the Literature Review. Present these theories, concepts, and themes in outline form, differentiating each main heading into logical subheadings. (Keep it simple). 5. Due for draft 1, go to the next major section (Review of the Literature) – insert these themes/concepts as level headings/sublevel headings in outline form. They serve to organize the Review of the Literature. Use appropriate APA (see p. 113 of APA) level headings. An example using APA level headings, is shown in the next major section of these guidelines. The concepts and themes for the example, uses the outline of themes previously discussed (leadership and organizational performance). 6. Insert the Figure 1, Literature Map at the end of this discussion of the Organization of the Review (before Scope and Context). a. Make sure that you develop your literature map in a software application that can be copied and pasted into your Microsoft word document containing your paper. b. Make sure the map is an appropriate size and fits within the required paper margins. c. The Figure and #, and Title (Literature Map) belong at the bottom, centered: Figure 1 Literature Map Your goal is to have the map well-developed in draft 1 and finalized in (draft 2). It is expected that this map will change as you â€Å"tighten† and â€Å"organize your literature review in the next section† as well as well as in your qualifying paper. Refine this part with each new draft (and particularly as your literature map evolves). Scope and Context Lecture This section lets the reader know what is and is not included in your literature review (scope). The topic is described in such a way that an appropriate context for the review of the literature is established, in a meaningful, logical way. The key terms here are included/excluded. You can restate the theories, concepts and constructs that you will include and obvious theories, concepts and constructs you won’t include (Look at your problem and topic area). Identify what might be included in the search in terms of types of organizations (public/private; for-profit, not for profit; service/product; types of businesses, types of educational institutions); populations such as young versus old; gender; cultural groups; countries; or type of occupation. The major types of scholarly literature to review are: empirical studies, review articles (critical analysis), theoretical articles/books, methodological articles, and case studies. These types of literature may be in the form of a book, hard copy journal articles, and electronic journal articles. The following are different types and forms of literature: Periodical Abstract in a primary source, Abstract in a secondary source, Periodical (hard copy), Periodical (electronic), Non-periodical (Book), Non-periodical (chapter in a book), Proceeding of meetings or symposia, Doctoral Dissertations (including abstracts), Unpublished work, Audio-Visuals, Newspaper, Government documents, and Electronic Media. 5 Instructions for Writing the Scope and Context 1. As you write this, discuss what is and is not included. Regarding the topic or problem area, discuss what is and is not included in terms of concepts/theories, applications to different populations and settings. 1. Identify the forms (not types) of publications that are included. You don’t need to name specific articles, but identify the forms of literature to be included. 2. Identify the discipline(s) you are focusing in (e. g. , education, health, business, criminal justice, accounting, sociology)? Included specialized areas within these disciplines, such as: gender theories in sociology, accounting ethics, special education for specified populations, urban violence, etc. 3. Identify the scope in terms of the years (period of time) that your literature review covers and exclusions. 5. Discuss whether you are limiting your review to U. S. literature, and/or Global literature. For global literature, identify the â€Å"countries†. If seminal books are emphasized, include the titles. Refine this part with each new draft (and particularly as your literature expands). Library Research Plan and Strategy Lecture THIS IS THE PLAN, NOT THE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE!! The review is presented in the second major section (Review of the Literature) Searching the Literature: A good review of the literature is dependent upon knowledge of the use of indexes and abstracts, the ability to conduct exhaustive bibliographic searches, and ability to organize the collected data meaningfully. Information literacy skills assist with information seeking and retrieval methods and scholarly communication. Recognize scholarly and peer reviewed journals (See Week 1 Lecture). The e-Learning tutorials about Lynn Library can assist research students with the development of literature reviews using electronic databases, abstracts, bibliographic software, Internet searching, Library catalogue searching, subject resources, off-campus searching, and research and writing skills. You need to complete the tutorials. Library Research Plan/Strategy: In reporting your library plan/strategy, identify concepts, themes (key words) or descriptors and search the relevant databases for research on your topic. Be consistent with the Literature map concepts and themes. Focus your search on primary scholarly works including: empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological inquiry. Recognize the differences between these types of scholarly inquiry. Review dissertation abstracts. Did you do a Lynn Library catalog search on the topic (at Lynn)? Did you search selected journals? Did you limit the search to peer-review journals? Did you limit the search to certain years? If you are having difficulty in your library search, you may make an appointment with the Reference Librarian who may assist in building effective search strategies. When visiting the Library, you should come prepared with your search words. Requesting Materials: It is suggested that you read the abstracts before requesting the materials from the Librarian, because certain abstracts may provide enough information to help you make a decision on the material’s relevance. Expect that you will obtain more literature than you will need to include in your literature review. Quantity, however, is not as important as selecting appropriate literature, that is of value and relevant. While many published review articles may have more than 100 cited references, due to time constraints in the course, the expectation is a minimum of 20 â€Å"relevant†, scholarly citations in the text of your paper. Do not go overboard. Quality and relevance is what counts. Don’t use references from â€Å"consulting firms† or firms that are â€Å"promoting† their products or services. Look for scholarly publications. Types and Forms of Literature: Minimum Requirements i. The preference is that you review a variety of types and forms of literature so that you many learn to: ii. Search for and evaluate different types and forms information iii. Integrate a variety of types information in the text of your paper iv. Recognize classic (seminal) works as well as current literature Give yourself time to read the material; do not make a library request for everything at once. Readings: Search Strategy worksheet: http://library. humboldt. edu/infoservices/sstrawrksht. htm http://www. noodletools. com/debbie/literacies/information/5locate/adviceengine. html http://www. lynn. edu/clientuploads/Library/Graduatestudentsmanual. doc 11 Instructions for Writing the Library Research Plan and Strategy In a Review, a discussion of the plan or strategy you used to develop your literature search is presented. Don’t discuss what you â€Å"will† do, but rather â€Å"what you did†. 1. Identify the descriptors (concepts, themes, theories, phrases/key words) used to search the relevant databases for research on your topic. Include â€Å"themes† or groups of words used in the search plan. Add the terms â€Å"theory† or â€Å"research† to your themes when you are searching. You should uses many â€Å"themes† to limit the search. Example of a theme for a library search: â€Å"leadership organizational performance research†. Try to include several themes. 2. Report databases used in your library search. 3. Indicate which of the following types of primary scholarly works were reviewed: empirical, theoretical, critical/analytic, or methodological inquiry (aim to obtain all of these)? 4. Were secondary citations of references used in your paper? Explain Why? Review APA p. 247 to understand a secondary citation of a source. Remember that these need to be limited. In your dissertation, you need to mostly use primary sources of literature. Remember that if you report literature from secondary sources in your paper use (as cited in __). 5. Explain if you reviewed dissertation abstracts (yes/no). If so, on what topics, which abstracts? You should use these. 6. Explain if you did a Library catalog search on the topic (at Lynn or where? ) Yes/ or no 7. Provide the titles of the key journals reviewed. (Put these titles in Italics). 8. Indicated whether or not you limited the search to peer-reviewed journals? 9. Indicate if you limited the search to certain years? If so, which years? 10. Refer the reader to the example of a library Search Print-out that you will place in Appendix A. 11. Report any problems encountered in your library search and how these problems were managed. Refine this part with each new draft. Interest, Significance, and Rationale for the Critical Analysis Lecture In this last part of the introduction to the literature review, you explain the importance and significance of the Review that will follow. As you read more, you will find more rationale as to why this review is important. Provide a transition sentence from this Introduction to the Review of the Literature. Then end with a statement that explains how the Review will conclude in the Discussion section. Example of concluding statement: As an emerging method of instructional delivery in higher education, and one that continually evolves with the growth in technology, it is important to understand its impact on learning, retention, instruction, and students. This critical analysis of the literature concludes with a summary and interpretation of theoretical, empirical, and methodological literature, conclusions, and recommendations for future scholarly inquiry into web-based instruction in distance education. 4 Instructions for Writing the Interest, Significance, and Rationale for the Critical Analysis 1. Discuss if the topic is of limited interest, regional, national, or perhaps of global interest? Explain why? You can include personal interest based on experience and potential applications. 2. Describe why it is worth studying (or examining)? 3. Indicate that the presentation of the Review of the Literature follows 4. Develop a concluding statement (see example above, in lecture) to the effect that a synopsis and interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations are presented at the end of the review in the discussion section. Refine this part with each new draft. Review of the Literature About ___ (add your topic) Lecture This is the second major part of this critical analysis. This has a long lecture. Now is the time to write â€Å"your in-depth Literature Review†. You laid the foundations for this section in the Introduction to the Review, to organize your review according to those themes. Present the theoretical literature (theories, model, constructs, concepts) about those themes, and empirical literature (studies) regarding those themes, in a proper manner. Follow the instructions (see presenting theoretical literature, and presenting empirical literature) in this Review of the Literature section. If you present the literature appropriately in this body of the review, then you will have information to present in the Discussion of the Literature. If you don’t, this Review falls apart. Only literature presented in this Review of the Literature can be analyzed in the next section, Discussion of the Literature. You will save a stitch in time, if you follow instructions and learn how to present theories, and how to present studies, including the authors stated limitations and recommendations for future inquiry, in addition to your critique of those studies. †¢ General comments: The theoretical and empirical literature is summarized, analyzed, evaluated, and synthesized in a more in-depth â€Å"coherent† manner within organized headings and sublevel headings. Specifically, information pertaining to theoretical, empirical, methodological, critical review, and case studies about the topic is reported. As reported previously, expect that you will obtain more literature than you will need to include in your literature review. Quantity, however, is not as important as selecting appropriate literature to present, that is of value and relevant. While many published Review articles may have more than 100 cited references, due to time constraints in the course, the expectation is a minimum of 20 â€Å"relevant†, scholarly citations in the text of your paper. This will increase to 50 references in the qualifying paper. It certainly isn’t unusual to have over 100 references in a dissertation. Do not go overboard. Quality and relevance is what counts. Don’t use references from â€Å"consulting firms† or firms that are â€Å"promoting† their products or services. Look for scholarly publications. As you present literature in your â€Å"word† document, it is okay to talk to yourself. Make notes in the document to your self. You can use different font colors or highlights for these messages to yourself. o Perhaps you want to leave a message to yourself to review a particular article that you didn’t yet have the chance to review, or o you want to search another theme. o Or you read an article, but didn’t have a chance yet to write about it – jot down notes o Use the word file as a tool where you keep all information in one place. You will find this technique very helpful in developing the qualifying paper, and in developing the your dissertation. The instructor does not mind (and in fact encourages you do to this, even in final copies0. Just make the messages â€Å"neat† – and not to distracting) Of utmost importance, is that you present your review appropriately. Practice doing it correctly immediately or you will be WASTING time (having to redo it later). †¢ Your review must be organized within the headings/sublevel headings. Insert the outline developed in the Introduction to the Review. Make sure that the outline is consistent with the organization of themes, concepts add theories in your literature map. †¢ It is ok if you reorganize or rename the themes, but make the changes if the Organization of the R (and literature map, in the prior section). You want the Introduction to the Review, Review of the Literature, and the Discussion section all to be â€Å"internally consistent† with one another. †¢ Instructions follow on how to present CRITICALLY present, theoretical and empirical literature. FOLLOW THESE INSTRUCTIONS. Quotations and Paraphrasing and Critical Analysis †¢ This is a literature review, and not your opinion.

How Do You Think the Asian Passenger Air Transport

The Asian passenger air transport marketplace will stable and growing rapidly. The latest Airbus Global Market Forecast (GMF), released in December 2010, shows that key drivers for the marketplace are the replacement of aircraft for newer more eco-efficient models in mature markets, dynamic growth in new emerging markets, the further growth of low-cost carriers – particularly in Asia-Pacific and Europe, further market liberalisation and capacity growth on existing routes. In 2010, views on whether low-fare airlines would continue to flourish in Asia varied. Three factors regulation, population demographics, and socioeconomic trends -drove this calculus. Although the target consumer base for AirAsia was enormous -more than 500 million people lived within three hours of AirAsia's hubs in Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok, more than Western Europe's entire population -the failure of Asia's regulatory environment to keep pace and the uncertain demand for low-fare services created uncertainty. Those who sold airplanes, airports or advice tended to be of the opinion that low-fare carriers would redraw Asia's socioeconomic map, offering affordable international travel to millions and thereby fostering the integration of a region divided by water, politics, and poor infrastructure. Analysts who saw a large and growing market predicted that budget airlines would tap pent-up demand among less affluent Asians, who typically travelled by bus and hardly expected attentive service. Since the global economy peaked in the second half of 2006 and even during the recession of 2008-2009, Asian carriers had seen increased success. â€Å"We're seeing that people in Asia travel as soon as they have some extra money in their pocket,† said Don Birth, president and chief executive officer of Abacus, a distribution services provider†) Although average incomes were lower in Asia than in Europe, Timothy Ross, an analyst for UBS, said that the region's lower average incomes should boost rather than constrain demand for cheap fares. Other analysts argued that there had traditionally been too few bilateral agreements that allowed new low-fare carriers to fly between countries and too few of the satellite airports that the airlines needed to keep costs low. In that vein, budget airlines such as AirAsia were hoping for increased cross-border travel in the wake of the December 2008 Asean open skies agreement. The agreement allowed carriers based in the region to make unlimited flights between all 10 Asean member states. Although it would be 2015 before the agreement was fully implemented, it was a positive step forward. For instance, in January 2010, the Indonesian Transportation Ministry announced it was gearing up for the country's full participation in the Asean air transport liberalization plan and intended to inc1ude five of Indonesia's twenty-seven international airports in the implementation. † Although this was only a small proportion, it was a symbolic start. â€Å"Liberalization tends to be infectious, and the germs of change are in the air,† concluded Peter Harbison, the executive chairman of the Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation. ‘ As more and more countries opened their skies, AirAsia was quick to start cross-border joint ventures, most notably in Thailand and Indonesia. AirAsia prompted increased passenger travel with its 2007-2008 â€Å"To Malaysia with Love† campaign. The campaign celebrated 50 years of nationhood for Malaysia, and offered travelers affordable fares â€Å"starting from MYR0. 50 (about 15 cents), available for all destinations to/from its Malaysian hubs. ,,36 Cheaper airfares were also made possible by the low-cost carrier terminal at Kuala Lampur Airport, with a throughput of about 10 million passengers annually. Even though, external, industry-wide challenges -particularly the escalating cost of fuel -also posed a threat to AirAsia. As the lowest cost carrier in the world, the company suffered more from high fuel prices, as they were a higher percentage of total costs, than any other airline (assuming similar equipment and seat density). Surcharges and baggage fees covered some of this but the airline was conscious that if it loaded on the full charge, it might find no demand on some flights due to a high base price (e. g. inimum or zero fare plus taxes, fees and surcharges). To offset this eventuality, AirAsia did a lot to improve operations and efficiency and also saw the benefits of the fuel efficient Airbus 320 help to maintain its low-fares brand position. To retain its cost advantage in the wake of the global recession, AirAsia entered into an alliance in January 2010 with Jetstar, the low-fare subsidiary of Australia's flag carrier, Qantas. This was the first time two leading budget airlines had collaborated in this fashion. The alliance allowed the companies to explore joint aircraft purchasing, passenger and ground handling services cooperation and the transportation of each other's passengers in the event of a disruption. Assuming the focus of the alliance was on cost sharing for services and aircraft procurement, it might prove effective. AirAsia had played the game very well and had ambitious growth plans to keep ahead of the pack. Time would tell if Fernandes and his team could maintain the company's position as Asia's -or perhaps the globe's -most successful budget airline. But what were the business implications for AirAsia if oil prices remained above $100 a barrel for the foreseeable future? Little possibility. Between slim and none The pattern in other regions suggested that once rules start to relax, growth follows. In the United States, the upsurge of budget carriers saw passenger numbers rise nearly 50 per cent in the five years following deregulation, compared with four per cent for traditional airlines. In 2010, low-fare carriers now had more than a third of the market. In Australia, Virgin Blue took only three years to win a 30 per cent market share. The growth of low-fare carriers had great potential to spill over into the broader tourist and business travel economy: having more air passengers generates higher demand for hotel rooms. This connection had been seen in Australia, where Virgin Blue took nearly one-third of the domestic market from Qantas Airways (which responded in part by setting up Jetstar). This resulted in a sharp upturn in demand for economy hotels, such as Accor. â€Å"In many cases, it's entirely new business that wouldn't have happened if it weren't for cheap air tickets,† commented Peter Hook, general manager for communications at Accor Asia Pacific . In addition, low-fare carriers might offer options for Asian travelers to mix business with pleasure, as many North American and European business travelers did, by extending trips or bringing family members to accompany them. Ultimately, Fernandes pointed out, budget airlines in Asia had an advantage in that Asia had almost no interregional highways and no high-speed international rail. â€Å"There's a lot of sea in between,† he said. â€Å"Air travel is the only way to develop interconnectivity in Asia. â€Å"

European Women’s History Essay

The role of women in society has greatly evolved. Prior to the emergence of today’s modern world, women were restricted and confined by the norms and dictates of society. Gender inequality greatly prevailed especially during the early societies. There was little room for progress for women. More often than not, women were prohibited from pursuing careers. Such personal growth was attributed solely to men.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, with the evolution of the society came the change in perception of the role of women. It can be said the change in society’s perception with regards to the role of women was initiated by the querelle des femmes, or the debate over women. Such debate began in the 14th century and lasted until the 18th century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the said period, various questions were raised with regards to how women should be viewed or treated in society. The status of women in society became the center of the debate. Questions regarding the rights of women as well as their capabilities were likewise raised. Misogyny was likewise an important issue that continuously raged on in the debate. Primarily, the basic question that emerged was regarding the capability of women for rational thought. Men and women argued on whether women are rational beings who could determine what is logical and rational. In other words, such question dealt with whether women have the ability to make decisions on their own.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From such debate emerged the changes in society’s perception over the role and status of women. Various assumptions were developed and were brought about the long debates and arguments. Among the most vital assumptions that were developed was one that concluded that women were indeed rational beings. Women were capable of rational thought and thereby had the inherent ability to make decisions for themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To supplement such nature of women, education for women was encouraged. Many philosophers argued that educating women was vital in order to establish their place in society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, it is not only with the querelle des femmes that questions over the role and status of women were argued upon. Such questions were continuously discussed even with the emergence of the enlightenment period. In both cases though, gender equality was the main point of debate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another assumption that emerged from such debates dealt with the fact that the role of women is society is a product not just of misogyny of men but with the education of women. Before the said period, women were educated in such a way that they would become submissive to men. Such mindset is one of the reasons why women were viewed as inferior beings in society. With the emergence of women writers in the aforementioned periods, the call for a change in the education of women began to emerge. The15th to 18th centuries saw an abundance of literary works that called for equal education between men and women. As previously mentioned, education was one of the key questions in the debate. Moreover, such literary pieces called for society to treat women as intellectual equals of men. In other words, the proponents of the movement demanded that women be considered intellectuals and thus be given intellectual education. It was no longer enough that women be trained to become mere housewives. The debate changed the type of education that women usually received. The debate reformed the view that women were ignorant and that they were only capable of performing household duties. With the many arguments raised in the centuries-long debate, such perceived nature of women was changed. The pro-women stand had several proponents. Each of them took on the battle using their pen and paper. It is through literature that women combated the misogynists of the time. Various literary works emerged that tackled the many questions that arose from the querelle des femmes. Women writers were at the forefront of the battle for a reformation of women’s rights and more importantly, the nature and role of women in society. The negative view of women was tackled directly and indirectly through prose and poetry. In each literary work, women writers such as Pizan and Wollstonecraft signified women’s desire to be considered as equal of men. More importantly, such works pinpointed the wanting of women to be viewed as intellectuals who deserve the proper training and education that will allow them to pursue further personal growth and development. The pen served as the weapon of choice for women. Through the pen, women were able to prove that they were intellectually capable of rational thought. Through the pen, women were able to voice out their dislike for the manner by which men and society in general viewed their importance and role.

Difficult Phrase Position Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Difficult Phrase Position Paper - Essay Example tians who overreact on the cases of immorality by interpreting the phrase their own way making it say more than what it was originally intended to say. A number of commentators who have written about 1 Timothy 3:2 have concluded that the phrase means that it is not a must for an elder to be married. They contend that the phrase simply tries to say that if a man is married, then he should be faithful to his spouse and exhibit marital fidelity and not be polygamous, a man of many women. The reason why marriage is not a must for one to be a church leader is argued from Paul’s point of view. Paul was neither married nor did he have children so he would not insert a qualification that would exclude him. It is noted that Paul spoke of the advantages of his own single state in 1 Corinthians 7:8,Paul expresses that celibacy is the most optimal state in which an individual is able to serve the Lord. The main idea here is that a man does not qualify as a husband of one wife because he has no wife, to be a man of one wife one has to have a wife. Personally the marriage view should be eliminated as it places an undue emphasis on a candi date’s married status while the text is more concerned with on a person’s character. The marriage issue lacks enough scholarly support its claims. This first understanding as meaning married to the church simply communicates that a man must be completely dedicated to the work of the church in order to qualify as an elder. In this view, the word wife is seen as the church or wife of Christ. In Eph 5:23) the church is alluded to as Christ’s bride. In Lange’s commentary Oosterzee refers to this position though it is often doubted because of his Roman Catholic origin. According to Kent, the view was an obvious endeavour to protect the Romish doctrine of celibacy for the priests. Being married to the church makes it irrelevant to marry a literal wife. Thus 1 Timothy 3:2 cannot be used to make the priests get married. The view was also

Early Medieval Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Early Medieval Culture - Essay Example War in the medieval era was the role of the knights. They were trained from their young age to fight both from the horseback and fighting on foot. They were the combat pinnacle of that era. Cavalry warfare was dominant in the medieval era. It was believed that this was the most effective tactic in that era. It is a strategy where the knights used to fight on the horses’ back. It was an unbeatable tactic. The knights used to wear expensive custom fitted with armor. The armor would also stop a lance strike as well as deflect off arrows. The knight’s horses were singularly important. A good war horse had to be exceptionally trained since an untrained horse can easily throw a knight down in the battle field. The horses were also supposed to be well armed. It is worth noting that war tactics were changing with time.Around 14th and 15th centuries, the European warriors developed very powerful combat style. This style proved to be very victorious on the battlefield both in per sonal defense and suppressing riots. The fighters were supposed to be exceptionally trained (Barbier et al, 2014). They would artfully duck, dodge and trap the opponents. They utilized graceful footwork alongside graceful techniques. Their techniques were supposed to be ruthless and very efficient. Their main objective in the battle field was to put down their opponents within the shortest time possible. If a trained medieval fight would meet an unskilled or semiskilled fighter, it took him about 10 seconds to finish him.

American CEOs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

American CEOs - Research Paper Example This is because the public is concerned that unfair CEO compensation can lead to disproportionate distribution of wealth. This paper argues that outrageous CEO compensation can result in depriving the shareholders, force the workers to accept reduced pay and lead to an imbalance which could be unsustainable in the long run for the organization as well as for the shareholders. The different forms in which CEOs were compensated have evolved over the years. In the 1980s the CEO compensation comprised mainly of cash salary and bonus with only 30% CEOs being granted the stock options. By 1994 options became a major component comprising of 70% of the CEOs receiving new option grants (Core, Guay and Larcker, 2003). Stock options thus became a major component of the CEO equity incentives. Theories have been cited to explain the CEO pay packages but according to Otten (2208) the executive pay packages are set by â€Å"simple† economics. It is often believed that the CEOs need to be com pensated for the risks they take and hence the market forces set the packages. Qualified professionals are few and hence valuable. They have to be offered incentives as they take on additional risks for value-increasing decisions, it is argued. Compensation takes various forms such as bonuses, shares and option grants. In other words, Otten argues, they are paid by performance and based on experience and seniority. If CEO pay could boost firm performance then imbalance would not occur but there is no support in empirical studies that there is a link between corporate financial performance and executive pay. Professor Kaplan argues that CEOs are underpaid and their compensation is based on the stock performance of the company. Walsh (2008) counters this stating that it is difficult to ascertain whether the CEO has been paid for his own performance or for his predecessors. Besides, the stock prices are always industry-adjusted and do not reflect the actual performance of the company. Since compensation is based on level of seniority and qualifications, the CEOs take home much more money than an average American worker (Walsh, 2008). The disproportionate distribution of wealth is evident from the fact that in 1980 the CEO made 42 times the average worker’s salary. This ratio increased to 107 in 1990 and 525 in 2000. The top 1000 CEOs took home 7% of their sales in 2005 which collectively amounts to Bolivia’s GDP, says Walsh. The Director compensation at Enron was $380,619 in cash and stock, which was the seventh highest director remuneration at that time (Brick, Palmon & Wald, 2006). Locke (2008) contends that the average workers’ pay adjusted for inflation increased by only 4.3% while the CEO compensation increased by 298 percent. While the median US salary in 2008 was $36,140, the CEO of Washington Mutual earned $5.8 million; the CEO of Boeing earned $19 million while a Church Facilities Manager earned $42,000. The imbalance is further endo rsed by Baker and Fung (2002) who argue that the wages of workers have been declining since the 1980s while the CEO pay has been increasing. Even before taking into account the value of stock options and bonuses, the CEOs in the US received compensation that was twice as high as any other nation. There is no evidence that the CEOs of the US firms are more productive than the CEOs of other nations. The markets know that the true cost of CEO is deliberately hidden (Baker & Fung, 2002).

Analysis of ACS Cobham International School's Organization and It's Essay

Analysis of ACS Cobham International School's Organization and It's Strategic Plan - Essay Example The essay is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the organization’s key targets, objectives and products .Section 3 discusses the competitive environment of the organization .Section 4 discusses the overall environment of the organization including both external and internal environments .Section 5 concludes the essay and makes recommendations for improvement of the strategic plan of the organization. 2. Targets, Objectives and Services ACS Cobham International School, London is part of the ACS International School group which consists of four schools, three of which are in England and the other in Doha. The school offers education from early childhood children to high school International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma, and an American curriculum, including Advanced Placement (AP) courses (ACS, 2011a). According to Collins and Porras (1996), the mission statement of a company gives its important ideology and visionary components. The three major components of the mission st atement are generally identified as the committed core values, core purpose and the visionary goals to be followed by the firm to fulfil its mission. The goal of the school â€Å"is to encourage critical thinkers, responsible global citizens, and students who are prepared to achieve the highest standards, both in their subsequent education and throughout their careers† (ACS, 2011b).This goal is expected to achieve through excellent quality of teaching, student centered approach, high quality curriculum, creative thinking and independent learning development, multi cultured atmosphere, educating high values and morals and participative approach(ACS, 2011c). 3. Competitive Analysis According to Coulter (2005), there are both specific environment, like customers, competitors, suppliers etc which influence directly the company’s strategic decision and general environment like political, economic, social and technological sectors that indirectly affect the company’s strategic decisions. The specific environment factors affecting a company’s strategic decisions are analyzed based on the model of the five competitive forces by Porter (1980). Porter’s model is based on the insight that a corporate strategy should meet the opportunities and threats in the organization’s external environment. This model includes the analysis of determinants of the intensity of competition and profitability of the industry like bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers, threat of entry of new competitors, threat of substitutes and competitive rivalry (Pavlicek, 2008). However, the main criticisms against the Porter’s models are their focus on only profitability and survival and the assumptions of classic perfect market, simple and static market structures and competitive markets which disable to capture the dynamics of markets .Hence, it cannot consider new business cycle models (Speed, 1989 and Sharp, 1996). In spite of th ese criticisms, this model is still popular for external analysis. The results of Porter’s five forces for ACS are given below. 1. Threat of New Entry Entry barriers are low in the education sector in UK .There are a large number of schools in UK with different arrangements,

Multimedia Creative Project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Multimedia Creative Project - Assignment Example According to Richard Louv’s ‘The Nature Principle’ he tells of how the  entire  family and whole societies can get happier, smarter and healthier through more encounters with the natural world (Louv 10). In this project, one out of his ten reasons why children and adults need vitamin-N is analyzed. The reason I chose is ‘Nature can reduce depression and improve psychological well-being (5).’ Scientists in Sweden have discovered that joggers who practice in natural green environments feel more reinstated and less angry, anxious, or depressed than individuals who burn the similar amount of calories exercising in a constructed urban setting (Louv 10). The reason I pick this reason is that in my video I experienced what the Louv’s discusses. When I was along the road in between the vegetations I felt restored and breathe fresh air that made cycling very enjoyable. The environment was green and lovely thus a place to reduce depression and improv es psychological health. However, a long the town center it was dull, congested and no fresh air (Louv 10). This is an indication that doing exercise within the town is less enjoyable, cannot reduce depression or improve psychological well-being. Researchers have developed models that can be used to associate human and nature. One of those models is HANDY (Human And Nature DYnamics) (Haila 100). This was originally constructed on the basis of predator-prey framework or model. Here the human population is taken as the predator, while nature, the natural possessions of the adjacent environment, can be seen as the prey, exhausted by humans. In animal frameworks, carrying capability is an upper limit on long-term population. The moment the population exceeds the carrying capacity, phenomenon such as migration or starvation bring the population back off (Haila 100). . However, in the circumstance of human communities, the inhabitants does not

Free Will Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Free Will - Essay Example This is in relation to the creation of the perfect conditions and circumstances that lead to the various actions and events in which man participates and engages. This is in the belief of having freedom of choice to make a free decision, as to what one want. However, it is not the case as all events are present beyond one’s control in the form of having the past play a crucial role in the future. In light of this, if one were given sufficient and comprehensive information on every particle that influences his or her decisions, it would be remotely possible to come up with every scenario that is likely to occur in the course of his or her lifetime. This means that, free will is a concept limited to beliefs that man holds in relation to his inability to acquire information on all aspects of life that are relevant to his wellbeing. This implies that causal determinism takes precedence over free will, as the two are independent aspects that occur contrary to one another. In additi on, psychology dictates that, in the deterministic world where causal determinism thrives, the events that take place are based on human behavior and neural functions (Smith and Oaklander 73). This is to mean that human behavior, neural functions are correlated, and that one is caused by the other. As a result, every event in the life of a human follows a set of events, which are the decisions that one makes. Thus, this makes it that the decisions that are made as a result of free will are redundant, as they end up being part of causal determinism. This is following the definition of causal determinism as having all set of condition preset before a certain event takes place, as is the case with the events that occur following decisions that humans make. Still, psychology proves that causal determinism is the way to go due to the relationship that the two hold in relation to cause and effect. This is as seen in then prediction of human behavior concerning actions and decisions throug h theoretical means by measuring all available aspects of individual life. Another issue that is raised in relation to causal determinism and free will is that of foreknowledge. This is in the case where there exists a superior being or power, God that knows every move and decision before man makes it. In light of this, it is impossible for man to have a free will if God already knows every move before it is made meaning that the move may be predetermined. As a result, if man’s will was free, then causal determinism dictates that no one can be able to predict or determine the next move that an individual makes (Smith and Oaklander 138). In addition, it means that the decision that humans make are determined or caused by external forces beyond human control. This is as seen due to unforeseen circumstances in which one engages in certain behavior with other factors or aspect of the activity unbeknownst to them, which results in making certain decisions that later affect or trig ger the occurrence of a certain event. This proves that causal determinism beats all forms of free will due to lack of sufficient information to secure freedom of choice in behavior or decision-making. It is the same determinism, which dictates that the past is closed; thus, one cannot

India of My Dreams Essay Example for Free

India of My Dreams Essay Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom With these words of Pandit Nehru, on 15th August at the stroke of the midnight hour India declared itself independent from the British rule. As the Union Jack was being brought down and the Indian tricolor flew up the hopes and aspiration of the Indian founding fathers were completed. Sixty years after the birth of this massive and diverse nation though there has been considerable progress, the overall picture of life in the country is depressing. With increasing prices and growing unemployment, the common man remains as poor as he had been. Though education has spread, its standard and quality have received a set back. Nor is the political scene very encouraging. While the working of democracy is not satisfactory, the forces of religion, provincialism and linguism pose a threat to the unity of the country. Our leaders lack the qualities of idealism, integrity and self sacrifice, which were abundantly in evidence during the days of the struggle for freedom. In this bleak situation, it is natural for the youth of the country to have a vision of a stronger India. In the same way I have a vision too – a fearless, strong, self reliant India. I visualize my country way ahead of other nations all round the globe in every aspect, whether its development in any field or showing its military might or being a fore-runner in technological advancement, skills and prosperity. I visualize India being a country that will provide equality of opportunity to one and all irrespective of caste, creed, and sex. A place that will provide optimum scope for development of latent skills of an individual and then to use it for the welfare of the nation. I strive for such a country wherein the poorest of the poor feel that this is his country in building which his voice has its due importance. I wish for a constitution, which will release India from all thraldom and patronage, and give her, if needed, the right to sin. I dream of a nation where nobody is illiterate and nobody sleeps hungry, where there is no distinction on the basis of genre, religion or caste, where justice to a common man is neither denied or deleted, where corruption in public life does not exist, where criminals do not occupy ministerial berths nor enter legislative assemblies, where merit counts in every sphere of life, where jobs cannot be purchased, where criminals have to spend the rest of their lives behind the bars and where the intellectuals like Amartya Sen do not have to leave the countrys shore for higher research and recognition. Today India is grappling with divided states, poverty, and population on the one hand and a mà ©lange of languages, traditions, festivals, religions, cultures which poses a problem but my vision for India is a country where the Kirtans from Gurudwaras, and Azan from Mosques, the Bhajans from Temples and chiming of the bells from churches merge and mingle and produce a harmonious, melodious, tune of humanity. I dream of a casteless and a perfect India of which all Indians can be truly proud of. My vision of India may sound like a dreamers agenda but the day every Indian citizen realizes his responsibility towards his country my vision would be reality. At last I would like to conclude with the words of Sir Rabindranath Tagore: WHERE the mind is without fear and the head is held high Where knowledge is free Where the world has not been broken up into fragments By narrow domestic walls Where words come out from the depth of truth Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection Where the mind is led forward by thee Into ever-widening thought and action Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

Effect of Video Games on Society

Effect of Video Games on Society Sam Hawkwood Over the past several years, games have received a lot of attention because of their content. Ever since the advent of the truly interactive video game – especially first person shooter games – people have been looking for signs that such media has a negative effect on. Games that are seen as violent have come under a lot of scrutiny and never more so when some tragedy happens and the perpetrator is known to play violent video games. In this paper, I will be looking at the effects that video games have had on society and I will come to the conclusion if they are good or bad for us. Gaming has gone from something that only nerds do to an activity that more enjoy than not. Rather than something that was regarded as the domain of computer geeks, its become a common activity that people of all ages are finding not only fun but acceptable. During the 80s and 90s, most games were generally all child-friendly and puzzle based, with little in the way of variety and realism, however over the past twenty years, gaming has taken a big leap into more mature games. This can be easily seen in the leap from games like Pac-Man and Mario Bros to Halo and Grand Theft Auto; such a change in little under a generation has had a big impact on society. The largest impact more modern games have had are in how they are perceived by the public. With the rate of tragedies such as shootings rising, the media has often blamed video games. There have been several shootings that have been blamed on video games in the past decade; for example, the 2012 Sandy Hook shooting in Connecticut was initially blamed on the popular game series Mass Effect. As stated some time after the shooting, in which 28 people lost their lives, 24 year old Ryan Lanza was named as the killer (US News). In reality, it was his brother who had stolen his ID card on his way to the school. As soon as Ryan Lanza was wrongfully named the shooter, Facebook users found his profile and learned that he was a fan of the massive hit from Bioware, the previously mentioned Mass Effect. Immediately, thousands of people went to the games Facebook page and blamed the shooting on the game. Even after Ryan was cleared as the killer, Facebook users continued to blame the game, despite the fact that the true killer, Adam Lanza, had had a history of obsessive-compulsive behavior and a fascination with mass shootings, and had not even been a serious player of video games and didnt consider them as particularly interesting. When it comes to a situation like this, video games were wrongly attacked. Although we could assume something else would be blamed if the wasnt any gaming involved. In the case of the Sandy Hook shooting, when Adam was 16, his mother took him out of school and supposedly started to homeschool him, although it was later found that he was not getting any education after his removal from school (US News). In 2011 the Valve game Portal 2 was accused of making fun of adopted children (Pcr). With no real violence, guns, swearing or nudity to speak of, you would have thought that this game would fly under the radar of the media. But unfortunately for Valve, this was not the case. Part way through the game, the primary antagonist taunts the player and says â€Å"fatty, fatty no parents†. This is clearly meant to be a joke and Valve has said that no offense was meant. This is very understandable since the voice actor for this character is the English comedian Stephen Merchant. According to WBTV News, the adopted daughter and father play the game often and when the father heard the line, he immediately turned off the game, hoping his adopted daughter didnt hear it. In a game that is very education and rated E For Everyone. WBTV News even contacted Sony, the distributors of the game. Sony told WBTV News to contact Valve, the developers of the game. But WBTV has said that Valve has not responded (Pcr). With most people of the gaming community blaming the father for over reacting to a joke, it is hard to say how this has effected society. As small of an event as this is, who knows how this could effect the future of the Portal series. In January of 2010, the British Medical Journal published an article about how video games are causing rickets to effect UK children (Cnet). According to the research, more children are staying inside and lacking vitamin D. The inactivity causes their bones to soften, leading to a physical deformity. â€Å"Kids tend to stay in more these days and play on their computers instead of enjoying the fresh air. This means that their vitamin D levels are worse than in previous years,† (Cnet). According to an article by online information technology website www.cnet.com, video game developers should make their protagonists â€Å"losers† (Cnet). Matyszczyk asked, â€Å"How about we talk to the makers of Grand Theft Auto, World of Warcraft, and the rest into making versions in which characters with vitamin D deficiency, in one way or another, losers?† While there is no real evidence to support this idea being fake, there isnt any evidence to disprove it. So while this idea could be true, most of the gaming community brushed it off as an excuse from parents who dont know how to teach their child. This effect of society has the potential to be big, but it was a small story to begin with and unless this can be proven, we will likely never hear of this again. So far, I have given examples of times where games have effected society, in a negative way (regardless of a storys popularity). There have still been multiple articles written about how video games are good for society and even your health. According to a Forbes article from November 2013 (Shapiro, J., 4 Reasons Video Games Are Good For Your Health (According To American Psychological Association), p.01), there are at least four ways that video games can improve your health. The article written by Jordan Shapiro states that playing â€Å"First Person Shooters† can improve your cognitive skills. In controlled tests, people who played â€Å"First Person Shooters† showed faster and more accurate attention allocation, higher spatial resolution in visual processing, and enhanced mental rotation. Apparently, the improvement in spacial skills that game players develop are comparable to those developed in formal courses designed to teach the same skills. There also seems the be convincing evidence that playing enhances problem solving skills, and improves creativity. â€Å"Among a sample of almost 500 12 year-old students, video game playing was positively associated with creativity.† (Forbes) Another point made by Shapiro is that â€Å"Contrast to stereotypes, the average gamer is not a socially isolated, inept nerd.† (Forbes) Many of todays gamers are not loners at all. In fact, gaming brings people together. The whole point of online gaming is working with other people to accomplish a unified goal. The Mario Bros. games have a strong co-op mode for people to play together and work together. There are other parts of online gaming that put you and your friends up against other players. When it comes to violence in gaming, there is no scientific evidence that proves that playing violent games makes you violent. In fact, there is a lot of proof showing how playing violent video games can make you a better person. A study from the University of Buffalo led by professor Matthew Gizzard, PhD, states â€Å"Rather than leading players to become less moral, this research suggests that violent video game play may actually lead to increased moral sensitivity.† (TheDailyBeast) Gizzard points out that when the players gaming session was over, he worked to identify and assess players feelings of guilt. â€Å"The research with video games is so polarizing,† Gizzard said. â€Å"You see people arguing that video games are the worst thing that ever happened to society. You have some people arguing that it it leads to school shootings. On the other side of the equation, you have people saying video games are going to be this cure for all sorts of societal ills.† (TheDailyBeast) It is still hard to say whether or not video games have been good or bad for society. There have been many many moments where games have done some bad, but there are also many times where games have been great for people. The effect video games have on people can vary. Most people would see it as a fake world where nothing in there is related to the real world. Some people see video games as simulator of real life. When people wrongly blame video games for a shooting, it is almost just like saying that television would melt your brain in the 40s and 50s. It seems to be pinning the blame on something that you dont fully understand. I do not believe that video games have been bad for society. In fact, I believe that they have allowed us to go into a new age of technology. But if people continue to see video games as evil, then maybe it shows that we arent ready for that type of technology. My conclusion is that I believe video games have been, and, for a while to come, will be beneficial for human survival. I have given several examples of how video gaming has been given a hard rap for many negative aspects of society, and how studies seem to show this is in fact not the case. We must realize we are leaving the analog age of entertainment and entering the digital age. Video gaming is a very big part of this digital age we must be careful not to quickly put blame onto something in society simply because it is not fully understood or appreciated. References Fox, L. (2013, Nov. 25). Report: Sandy Hook Shooter Adam Lanza was Obsessed with Mass Shootings. U.S. News. Retrieved from URL http://www.usnews.com/ Magnusson, H. (2014, Mar. 02). Report: 5 Riediculous Things the Media Blamed Video Games for. Cracked. Retrieved from URL http://www.cracked.com/ Ashcraft, B. (2012, Dec. 15). Report: Mob Blames Mass Effect For School Shooting, Is Embarrassingly Wrong. Kotaku. Retrieved from URL http://www.kotaku.com Nolan, H. (2012, Dec. 14) Report: The Sandy Hook Elementary Shooting: Everything We Know About the Shooter. Gawker. Retrieved from URL http://www.gawker.com (2012, Dec. 16) Report: Mass Effect Video Game Wrongfully Attacked By Facebook Group Following Sandy Hook Elementary Shooting [Op-Ed]. Inquisitr. Retrieved from URL http://www.inquisitr.com Cohen, J. (2014, Dec. 14) Report: Two Years Later, Still Learning From Sandy Hook. Npr. Retrieved from URL http://www.npr.org Wooden, A. (2011, May. 19) Report: Portal 2 slammed as insensitive by US media. Pcr. Retrieved from URL http://www.pcr-online.biz Matyszczyk, C. (2010, Jan. 21) Report: Video games blamed for return of rickets. Cnet. Retrived from URL http://www.cnet.com Shapiro, J. (2013, Nov. 27) Report: 4 Reasons Video Games Are Good For Your Health (According to American Psychological Association). Forbes. Retrieved from URL http://www.forbes.com Zawacki, K. (2014, Jul. 04) Report: Playing Violent Video Games Makes You a Better Person, Study Says. TheDailyBeast. Retrieved from URL http://www.thedailybeast.com

User Perceptions of Web 2.0

User Perceptions of Web 2.0 Abstract With the advent of the internet and the evolution of e-business, the widely held perception is that we operate in a know ledged-based economy. Many organisations have realised that changing and adapting their business processes to leverage information technology is vital for sustainability. The traditional paradigm of focusing on products has gradually eroded and organisational rhetoric has shifted towards services. In fact the notion has been permeated that the customer has taken centre stage in corporate strategy . Focus is now drawn to building sustainable relationships with customers and involving them in the decision making processes. Customers are now involved in core organisational processes such as development of new products and services. Customers services in the traditional approach has mainly consisted of assisting customers before or after the purchase of products. With the customer taking a central theme in organisational strategy and with the introduction of Informatio n technology as an enabler of organisational change . IT Organisations have looked at information systems such as Customer relationship management solutions to manage all aspects of customer communications. CRM systems have been rolled out with the promise to enhance operational efficiency and productivity in organisations. CRMs are supposed to help IT Organisations understand their customers better. Most customer services in knowledge based Organisations now rely on knowledge bases and CRMs. However it seems that in spite of all these information systems and organisational efforts , many IT organisations have yet to fully harness the capabilities of e-business and gain competitive advantage by leveraging the customers as co-creators and co-producers of knowledge. Notions such as self-service are not as pervasive as one would expect. It is arguably true that some IT organisations have attempted with belated success to establish a true symbiotic relationship with their customers. The refore this study will attempt to encourage the use of web 2.0 by exploring the user perceptions of users in web 2.0 specifically in customer services. Qualitative research was carried out through semi-structured interviews focussing on the social , personal, cognitive and affective perception of users when participating in web 2.0 (Blogs, virtual forums, etc))within support activities. The analysis of the data was carried out using the Users and Acceptance framework . Implications for research and practice highlight organisational culture as a very important prerequisite for the use and acceptance of web 2.0 enabled technology. CHAPTER 1 Introduction The constant innovation of software products has invariably driven the need for customers to understand and use the ever evolving products effectively (Dholakia et al , 2009).As a result of this organisations rely predominantly on the acquisition of a service support contract defined as pre-sales and post sales support contracts to enable these organisations to learn about the product, assist in using the product and ultimately solving problems during the use of the software ( Gray and Durcikova 2006). An indirect advantage of a support contract provides organisations with information about their customers to personalise the pre-purchase, purchase, and post-purchase experiences (Kohlbacher, 2008). Some firms supplement this employee-based service support model with virtual customer communities ( (Mathwick, Wiertz, and de Ruyter 2008) such as Ebay (Dholakia et al , 2009).In fact Mills and Morris (1986) argue that customers can thus become partial employees by taking over some service functions that are normally carried out by employees. This implies that some firms successfully leverage their relationships with their customers to derive further value creation. This view falls in line with the argument that organisations should build better relationships with their customers with the aim to retaining customers (Lemon, White, and Winer (2002),; not only because the growth of the internet and rapid technological progress has lead to increasing market transparency thus making it difficult to achieve long lasting differentiation (Hande Kimilog?lu and Hu ¨lya Zarali) , but also because customer loyalty can be directly linked to organisational profitability. Loyal customers have higher customer retention rates, use a larger share of their category spending to the organisation, and are more likely to recommend others to become customers of the firm (Reichheld and Earl Sasser, 1990; Zeithaml, 2000; Keiningham, 2007). A new perspective is being heralded that organisations can leverage web2.0 to build closer relationships with customers (Forrester). Web 2.0 encompasses a range of interactive tools and social communications techniques like blogs, podcasts and social networks (Chaffey, 2008).This is because the rapid spread of high speed internet access has enabled the participation and interaction that encourages user created content,creation of communities. The power of web 2.0 technologies such as Facebook and Myspace with 300 millions users arguably exemplies how popular and successful and relevant web 2.0 can be (Chaffey, 2008). Traditionally the verb networking describes the Machiavellian stance of creating and sustaining interpersonal connections and using these for commercial gain (Iacobucci) .Therefore one can be conclude that organisations should innovate on their services and leverage the internet to improve their brands recognition and improve customer loyalty. Interestingly within organisational studies the fostering of relationships to improve customer loyalty and serve customers better is the main reason why organisations deploy customer relationship management systems. In fact some (Chen ,Popovich; 2003 ) define CRM as an integrated approach to managing relationships by focusing on customer retention and relationship building facilitated by the advances in information technology. Others on the otherhand see CRM as a central knowledge management system.Still yet other emphasise the insight that organisations can gain from using CRM systems especially in marketing , segmenting and targeting (Colt.). While all these views possibly suggest that CRM can provide the relationship management , knowledge and insight to leverage the relationship between customers and organisations, it appears CRM falls short in practise to live up to these claims ; in fact Gibbert et al., ( 2002) claim that CRM leaves knowledge residing in customers. Similarly Zaltman (2003) argues that current CRM implementations are restricted to collecting and managing data and information while ignoring tacit information. This shortcomings of CRM has seen some researchers segment and reconceptualise some domains in CRM such as Customer Knowledge Management that deals with tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge and relationship management in customer services (davenport et a, 2001, Gibbert et al , 2002 ). While the importance of web 2.0 technologies such social networking is accepted (Forrester, Chaffeh) many researchers suggest that its impact in organisations has not been thoroughly investigated (Castilla et al. (2000). Therefore the aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of social media in customer service organisations . Data is gathered through an a questionnaire to participants to evaluate the potential and potential impact of web 2.0 technologies on customer services. RESEARCH FOCUS This dissertation intends to explore the use of web 2.0 information systems within customer services of an information technology organisation based in the united states with support centres in the united kingdom, Australia and India. The main themes this research seeks to explore are: How users perceive the Web 2.0 and its relation to their Cognitive needs that describes the acquisition of information, knowledge and understanding. Understand how the affective needs (Emotion, pleasure, feelings.) of users who participate in a firms web 2.0 information systems affiliate with the organisation Understand how Personal integrative ( Credibility, stability, status) are affected by participation in an organisations web 2.0 initiatives understand the impact of web 2.0 on users and the building of communities ( Social integrative) Aim and Objectives Aim The aim for this dissertation is to explore the user perceptions of web 2.0 within a technical support department specifically in an ICT organisations. Objectives Carry out a literature review of CRM within the organisational context and link to knowledge management and enterprise agiliy Examine Web 2.0 and review contemporary web 2.0 literature and its consequences for centralised versus decentralised (localised, contextualised) planning and decision processes in social systems; clarify key characteristics of Web 2.0 technologies and their potential to enhance networking and collaboration among peers in communities of practice; assess the potential of the communication and collaboration features of Web 2.0 tools for creating and exchanging knowledge in corporate information systems; outline the potential of Web 2.0 technologies to foster employee empowerment through collaboration and interaction; and finally draw conclusions for the adoption of Web 2.0 technologies in organisations Research Approach In order to explore the user perceptions of web 2.0 within customer services, qualitative interpretive research will be carried out.Qualitative research appears more appropriate for this study as it will provide information into what each particular user perceives the usefulness of web2.0 . Because such information is more subjective in nature , it is therefore better approached using qualitative research. The essence of this qualitative research will be interpretive in nature into uncovering information about the human perception, feelings, opinions and thoughts (Fonow and Cook ,1991). Observatory research while being useful is limited to solely identifying behaviour however not understanding reasons behind that behaviour and does not include important details such as the context of users. This is not enough insight for the purpose of this research as there is a clear need to ascertain both the behaviour as well as attitudes behind these. Additionally quantitative research acquires data through the assumption that social facts can always be measured on the assumption that they have an objective reality. Thus not identifying that user attitudes and perceptions can be influenced by emotions and as a result fail to gain a deeper insight to motivation and behaviour. Dissertation Outline This section outlines and briefly describes the structure of the dissertation : CHAPTER 1: Technical Support This chapter is an introduction of the dissertation highlighting the research area with a presentation of the aims and objectives of the research CHAPTER 2: Literature Review This chapter is a critical review of existing literature on call centre. It also discusses contemporary theories and perspectives relating to the Technical support. It also discusses the use of information systems within the context of this dissertation CHAPTER 3: Research Methodology will describe and articulate the research methodology. This also includes information about the design of the research and the Organisation Chapter 4: Research findings and Analysis This chapter presents the case study, the findings from the semi-structured interviews conducted in the organization using the Users and gratification (UG)theory as the conceptual lens for the discussion. Chapter Five :Analysis and discusses the result of the research. Each hypothesis is investigated for any acceptance or rejection of the proposed framework designed for each hypothesis. Concluding this section will be a discussion of limitations arising from developing this research. Chapter 5: Conclusion This will discuss the implications of the research findings in practise while also suggesting some recommendations for future research. CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Perspectives on customer relationship management systems Technical Support Customer relationship Management There are diverse views on why organisations implement customer relationship management systems. Ngai (2005) suggests that the CRM have been primarily used to automate processes. Senge et al (1999) suggests that Organisations need to continuously change and adapt to changing environment and assert that Customer relationship management systems are key to this process. Stein and Smith (2009) suggest that if properly organized and applied, information can become the knowledge that defines the mission, form and strategy of an Organisation and associate CRM with theories such as the adaptive enterprise. This view is shared by Sun et al (2006) who suggest the primary purpose of CRMs as adaptive learning. In this context adaptive learning is defined as the process of predicting information from large databases to identify valuable customers, the ability to learn about the preferences of these valuable customers , forecast future behavioural patterns and estimate customer value. The rapid gr owth of the internet (chaffey, 2008) and the current limitations of existing CRM implementations (Gibbert et al, 2002) has seen some It has been established that organisations must exploit existing competencies,technologies, and knowledge (March, 1991) , improvise (Orlikowski) and also pursue knowledge about unknown possibilities for competitive action (Sambamurthy, 2003).It has being In fact the notion of organisational agility is often permeated and is described as a combination of customer agility, partnering agility, and operational agility (Cronin 2000). The underlying perspectives seem therefore to suggest that Organisations operate in continuously changing environments, it appears that Organisations are expected to be agile. Agility There are some divergent views which suggest how companies should attain enterprise agility. The underlying concept behind all these definitions relies on these organisations sensing changes and responding accordingly. Some advocate absorptive capacity (Zahra, 2002) which suggests the capability (dynamic) to create and utilize knowledge. While others suggest enterprise agility that builds upon other theories in management theory such as dynamic capability, strategic flexibility, market orientation and absorptive capacity (Overby 2006). Chaffen (2008) highlights strategic agility as the an organisations ability to innovate and so gain competitive advantage within a market place by monitoring changes within an organisationss marketplace and then to efficiently evaluate alternative strategies and then select review and implement appropriate candidate strategies. Nambisan (2002) postulates that agility is important for organisations and argues that customers serve three valuable roles namely as a source of innovation ideas, as co-creators who help in the development and design of innovative products and services, and finally users help in testing the product or in assisting other users learn about new products or services.Others (Kohli and Jaworski 1990) underline the more strategic advantages of Customer agility and suggest it helps organisations gain market intelligence and in detecting competitive action opportunities. However it seems CRMs are not only implemented for firms to gain agility or intelligence. This raises the question about what Organisations expect from CRM implementations. It appears the role of the customer within organisations has gained increased focus.In that light Kohli Jaworski (1990) postulate that customers play a central strategy in organisations. (Fornell et al , 2006) have done some empirical studies and suggest that there is a direct link between customer relationship activity and firm performance. Similarly Lemon, White, and Winer (2002) highlight the marketing trend of building long lasting relationships with customers for better competitiveness. Agrawal (2003) suggests CRMs are central to the task of making an organisation customer centric and maintains that this is the most certain way of increasing value to organisations and profitability to the organisations. The Information centric view of CRM has also been delineated with Peppers and Rogers (1999) highlighing th e technological aspects of customer relationship management and arguing that CRMs are technology solutions that extend separate databases and sales force automation tools to link sales marketing efforts to improving targeting efforts. From these viewpoints, one could suggest that the ultimate objective behind CRM initiatives is ultimately about managing relationships with customers . The proposition is that if organisations build better relationships with customers, this would ultimately lead to better competitive abilities and can lead to long term competitiveness and sustainability. This appears simplistic and deterministic and there is research evidence to suggest that some CRM initiatives have not met these objectives, for example Rigby et al (2002) argue that CRM initiatives have alienated long-term customers and employees. Customer relationship Management Definition Within the scope of this study the definition of Customer relationship management systems will be aligned with Chen and Popowich (2003) that define CRMs as a combination of people ,processes and technology that seek to provide understanding of customers. According to Chen and Popovich (2003) a CRM system is a complex application that mines customer data, creates a comprehensive view of key customers, and predicts their purchasing patterns. CRMs support business strategy and assist in the building of long term relationships with the customer. Chen and Popowich (2003) also maintain that although CRM is enabled by technology, it is not a technology solution because the key processes are carried out by people and these need clear understanding of the objectives of key decisions. Although the term CRM seems to have a ubiquitous definition that focuses on relationship management with customers, Greenberg (2004) claims that Customer relationship management systems can be interpreted in thre e distinct ways; (1) Data-driven CRM that leans on Information technology and centres around the integration customer information using applications, interfaces, and automation tools. (2) Process-driven CRM builds around organisational practices and rules and seeks to automate organisational processes for better efficiency. (3) people-driven CRM focuses on the job of executives and employees in utilizing face-to-face communication to process relationship management. The underlying proposition is that CRM while being technologically enabled requires company-wide, cross-functional, customer-focused business process re-engineering to be successful. CRM has arguably cemented its position as an important organisational construct with Forrester research postulating the growth of the CRM industry will reach 11 billion dollars annually by 2010 (Forrester,2008). In spite of this apparent success of CRM, there are diverging views on its efficiency and suitability to dealing with issues raised with customer support services departments and as such Chen, Popovich (2003) postulate that CRM is a combination of People, process and technology that need to provide understanding of customer needs to support a business strategy. This suggests that organisational structure is an important facet of CRM. Similarly some suggest that the key to organisation success is rooted in the ability to sense environmental change and respond readily (Overby2006). The environment in this context are the strategic and operational conditions such as regulatory changes, technological advancement and increased customer demands. Thus the point is made for the agile enterprise. Agility is defined as the ability of an (inter-connected) organization to detect changes, opportunities and threats in its business environment and to provide speedy and focused responses to customers, as well as other stakeholders, by reconfiguring resources and processes, and through strategic partnerships and alliances. The argument can thus be made that organisations need to derive more from the information at their disposal to ensure better decisions. In the context of the internet , it can be argued that with the low cost entry barrier offered by the internet , organisations now require unique selling points to differentiate their products and retain their existing customers. This has caused the customer support services departments to emerge as one of the most importan t parts of organisations. Perhaps because customers must learn continuously to keep abreast of innovations (Dholakia et al , 2009).Attracting a new customer is more expensive than retaining a customer (Chaffey , 2006). The Role of Information Systems The role of information technology on agility is often referred to as indirect (Overby, 2006). This view suggests that IT provides the infrastructure upon which other business functions and processes rely. Information technologies such as decision support systems, data warehouses, and OLAP tools can facilitate the development of knowledge through real-time data monitoring, pattern identification and scenario modelling. This enhances the organisation sensing capabilities by providing managers with high-quality information about the state of the business, which helps them, identify emerging opportunities.Others (Sambamurthy et al, 2003) suggest that information technology investments and capabilities influence firm performance through a nomological network of three significant organizational capabilities (agility, digital options, and entrepreneurial alertness) and strategic processes (capability-building, entrepreneurial action, and co evolutionary adaptation)..The essence of their ar gument appears to be that organizations with better information technology are better at making decisions. One can therefore infer from these arguments that organisations should use Information technology as an enabler which enables them to sense and perceive changes in their environment and respond effectively (the fastest response is not necessarily the best response). The role of information technology and its impact on CRM initiatives has been greatly discussed. According to Tamminga and OHalloran (2000) the increasing use of the Internet by customers has important ramifications for CRM because of what is expected in terms of customer management . Along these lines Petrissans (2000) maintains that information technology automation solutions such as FAQ (frequently asked questions ) and interactive voice response systems can increase operational efficiency. Furthermore Sandoe et al. (2001) suggest that information technology development such as business intelligence through data warehousing and data mining are very important for the effectiveness of CRM systems Fundamentally it appears the role of information technology on enterprise ability and agility is often referred to as indirect (Overby, 2006). This view maintains that IT provides the infrastructure upon which other business functions and processes rely. Information technologies such as dec ision support systems, data warehouses, and CRM can facilitate the development of knowledge through real-time data monitoring, pattern identification and scenario modelling. This enhances the organisation sensing capabilities by providing managers with high-quality information about the state of the business, which helps them, identify emerging opportunities. One could argue from these research perspectives that technological advances are lead deterministically to better CRM systems, however it seems this is not the case ;for example Chen and Popowich (2004) claim that for some organisations CRM is simply a technology solution that consolidates disparate databases and sales force automation tools to bridge sales and marketing functions in order to improve sales efforts. This view is shared by Reinartz et al (2004) who suggest that one of the reasons for the disappointing results of many CRM initiatives can be attributed to the overemphasis on CRM as an information technology solutio n. As a result Coltman (2004) correctly argues that Information technology must be applied in the right way to derive business value and claims that Information technology impacts organizational performance via intermediate business processes, requires complementary organizational resources such as workplace practices and structures and is influenced by the external environment. Data , Information and Knowledge Plato suggested that knowledge could only be derived from that which is believed and is true, typically called justified true belief.Earl (1994) advocates that data has to be interpersonal or objective and postulates 4 levels of knowledge needed to understand organizational information events are collected and processed to generate Data , data is manipulated and interpreted to generate information and information leads to knowledge.Sveiby suggests that information is meaningless, but becomes meaningful knowledge when it is interpreted. Polanyi (1966) defines knowledge as a construct that cannot be separated from its social context, similarly Toumi,1999) posits that data should include the context within which it was captured to ensure that it can be understood and interpreted correctly. The main underpinnings of these schools of thoughts seem to underline the importance of tacit and subjective knowledge. Tacit knowledge is defined as personal; context specific and therefore hard to formalize and communicate (includes cognitive and technical elements) This is in contrast with proponents of explicit knowledge who advocate that knowledge should be objective , that is knowledge that is transmittable in formal systematic language (Nonaka and Takenchi 1995). CRM and the internet The growth and success of the internet has been emphatic as 10.000 new pages are added each day (chaffey, 2008). This success has been fuelled by the increase in broadband adoption alongside the low cost of the internet (chaffey 2008).The internet has because of its low barrier to entry and . Not only has the internet seen the introduction of new concepts such as e-business and forced organisations to evaluate organisational silos or constructs but it has introduced new technologies such as blogs, social networks, RSS that are collectively now known as web 2. 0.Petrohoff (2008) suggests that social media is not just these new technologies enabled by the internet but is more about a community that interact with each other on an ongoing basis. The growth of the CRM industry as impressive as it seems cannot compare with the explosive growth of the internet that has catapulted ecommerce to centre stage with the value of sales alone in 2008 estimated at  £222.9bn in the united kingdom (http://www.statistics.gov.uk/pdfdir/ecom1109.pdf). This indicates that the ecommerce has become an important medium for companies to reach customers more easily.. The notion is thus permeated that rapid advancements in technology are leading to increasing transparency of marketing activities, thus making it difficult to achieve long-lasting differentiation (Hande Kimilog?lu and Hu ¨lya Zarali. 2008).While some (CA? LIN GURA?U et al , 2003) claim that the low entry barriers, the market size and the relatively low costs of online business activities have created a situation of intense competition and suggest that organisations therefore need to build brand loyalty and manage their relationships with customers better for long term viability .O thers on the otherhand see the potential offered by the internet such as high speed, cost effectiveness, constant availability, efficiency in transferring information, and integrated and individualised nature are major drivers and strengths for CRM applications (Bauer et al., 2002; Frawley, 2000). Thus a new conceptualization of CRM has been derived to accommodate the possibilities offered by the internet,wireless media and e-mail, denoted by E-CRM (chaffey and smith , 2008) with the goal of acquiring and retaining customers online using organisational websites The role of People in CRM implementations has been examined by some researchers and there appears to be divergent views. Rigby et al (2003) suggest that although CRM are used to automate processes; these processes cannot manage customer relationships that deviate from the norm for example CRM is not as effective for relationship building as face to face communication . Davenport et al (2004) concur with this and argue that two distinct types of knowledge is generated by Organisations through customer information processing, namely tacit and implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is generated through the processes of the CRM information system such as recording the actions of customers during communication .Explicit is therefore defined as knowledge that can be articulated ,documented and made accessible. This is contrasted with tacit knowledge generated during interaction with customers but cannot be documented and made accessible. Davenport et al (2004) therefore claim that for orga nisations to embark on successful CRM initiatives, human processes can complement and overcome the deficiencies in the technology led CRM implementations. This is also highlighted by Stringfellow, Nie, and Bowen (2004) who suggest CRM systems require complex channels to elicit the emotional needs of customers that cannot be met with standard CRM systems. As a result of this, they conclude that CRM systems are technology-rich but knowledge-poor. Therefore indeed the usefulness of CRM is limited when dealing with unstructured information and tacit knowledge. And some (Markus et al 2002) therefore correctly argue that Organisations need emergent knowledge processes . Emergent knowledge processes are organizational activities that exhibit three characteristics in combination: (1) deliberations with no best structure or sequence, (2) knowledge requirements include both general and tacit knowledge distributed across experts and non-experts, and (3) highly unpredictable actor set in term of job role or prior knowledge (Markus, et al., 2002). Web 2.0 : communication, cooperation, collaboration and connection. Musser and OReilly ( 2006) defines the WEB 2.0 as the business revolution in the computer industry caused by the move to the internet as platform and an attempt to understand the rules for success on that new platform. Chief among those rules is this: Build applications that harness network effects to get better the more people use them . Oreilly gives a comprehensive definition and suggests that Web 2.0 is a range of interactive emergent tools and social communication techniques such as Blogs, Podcasts and social networks that are aimed at increasing user participation and interaction on the web (Albrecht et al., 2007; Berners-Lee et al., 2006; Kerres, 2006; McAfee, 2006;Musser and OReilly, 2006; OReilly, 2005; Seufert, 2007). This implies that web 2.0 is an umbrella term that underlines a new paradigm of capabilities made possible by the pervasiveness or rather near ubiquity of internet. Some highlight the web 2.0 as the breaking down of organisational silos Oberhelman (). In fact Oberhelman () postulates that Web 2.0 refers generally to web tools that, rather than serve as a forum for authorities to impart information to a passive, receptive audience, actually invite site visitors to comment,collaborate, and edit information, creating a more distributed form of authority in which the boundaries between site creator and visitor are blurred. This view is shared by Graham (2005) who posits that